Les pays où l'espagnol est minoritaire
Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay live in a particular situation. Au Pérou , 47 % des Péruviens parlent l'espagnol alors que le reste de la population utilise l'une des 85 langues «indiennes» (dont l'aymara et le quechua). L'espagnol est minoritaire également en Bolivie (43 %) et au Paraguay (3 %). On compte une bonne quarantaine de langues «indiennes» en Bolivie (dont l'aymara et le quechua).
Enfin, dans deux pays, le Paraguay en Amérique du Sud et la Guinée équatoriale en Afrique, la quasi-totalité de la population emploie une autre langue que l'espagnol comme langue maternelle. Cette situation ressemble à celle de plusieurs États francophones ou anglophones d'Afrique: une infime minorité utilise la langue officielle comme langue maternelle. Au Paraguay, près de 97 % de la population parle le guarani. Selon le paragraphe 2 de l'article 140 de la Constitution paraguayenne (1992): «Ses langues officielles sont le castillan et le guarani.»
Quant à la Guinée équatoriale , coincée par le Cameroun et le Gabon (deux États de langue française), l'espagnol y demeure la langue officielle (avec le français), mais 75 % de la population parlent le fang et 25 % se partagent les sept autres langues de ce petit État de 410 000 habitants. Durant l'année 1998, le Parlement a adopté la Loi constitutionnelle portant modification de l'article 4 de la Loi fondamentale et établissant que «les langues officielles de la république de Guinée équatoriale sont l'espagnol et le français». Dans les faits, l'espagnol est la première langue officielle, le français, la seconde.
Countries where Spanish is a minority
Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay live in a particular situation. In Peru, 47% of Peruvians speak Spanish while the rest of the population uses one of 85 languages "Indian" (including the Aymara and Quechua). Spanish is also a minority in Bolivia (43%) and Paraguay (3%). Spanish is also a minority in Bolivia (43%) and Paraguay (3%). There are a good forty languages "Indian" in Bolivia (with Aymara and Quechua).
Finally, in two countries, Paraguay in South America and Equatorial Guinea in Africa, almost all of the population uses a language other than Spanish as their mother tongue. This situation resembles that of several states of Francophone and Anglophone Africa: a small minority use the official language as mother tongue. In Paraguay, about 97% of the population speaks Guarani. According to paragraph 2 of Article 140 of the Constitution of Paraguay (1992): "Its official languages are Castilian and Guarani."
As for Equatorial Guinea, squeezed between Cameroon and Gabon (two French-speaking states), including the Spanish remains the official language (with French), but 75% of the population speaks the blood and 25% share seven other languages of this small country of 410 000 inhabitants. During 1998, Parliament adopted the Constitutional Act Amending Article 4 of the Basic Law and stating that "the official languages of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea are Spanish and French. In fact, Spanish is the first official language, French, second.
http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/Langues/2vital_inter_espagnol.htm
Paraguaigua noñe'êkuaáiva guarani pytaguarôguáicha hetâme
May 1, 2001
"A Paraguayan who can't speak Guaraní," opines this proverb, "is like a foreigner in his own land." In fact, between 90% and 95% of Paraguay's 5 million inhabitants speak Guaraní (pronounced "wa-ra-NEE," with a guttural rasp on the "wa"). That makes this indigenous language not just Paraguay's dominant language (by comparison, only 75% of Paraguayans speak Spanish), but also the only First Nations language on the planet to enjoy majority-language status, as well as the only one spoken on a large scale by non-aboriginals. (About half of Guaraní speakers are of European descent.) Finally, Guaraní earns Paraguay membership in that most restricted of clubs, the Officially Bilingual Nations of the Americas, a distinction it shares only with Canada and Haïti.
Victory in conquest
At contact, Guaraní cultures dominated northern Argentina, eastern Bolivia, and southern Brazil and Paraguay. In fact, after Arawakan, Guaraní may have been the most geographically widespread language in Latin America. But unlike every other native people in the Americas, the Guaraní managed to remain influential in Paraguay even after Spanish conquest. So influential were they in fact that the newcomers found they had to learn the local language to get by. Modern Paraguayans call Guaraní ñe'engatú ("dear speech"), or abá ñe'é ("common man's speech"). Traditionally relegated to a vernacular role in Paraguayan society, until recently Guaraní was not taught in schools or used in formal contexts in spite of its superior demographics. Today, thanks to a growing Paraguayan identity movement, it is poised to assume more substantial responsibilities in Paraguay and in the world.
The term "Guaraní" actually refers to a group of dialects of the Andean-Equatorial language family. (In addition to Guaraní, Andean-Equatorial languages include Quechua, Aymara, and Tupi, indigenous tongues that remain influential across most of modern South America.) Paraguay encloses several Guaraní dialects, among which two dominate. Mby'a is the dialect of rural aboriginals; most European and mixed-race Paraguayans speak Yopará. Although Yopará has absorbed many Spanish influences, it remains squarely Guaraní and is mostly intelligible to Mby'a speakers. And although Yopará accounts for most Guaraní communication on the national level, Mby'a is considered the "pure" tradition, insofar as it remains largely unadulterated by hispanicisms.
Though more Paraguayans speak Guaraní than Spanish, and songs and popular literature have been composed in it since colonial times, Guaraní had no official status in Paraguay until the 1992 Constitution recognised it as an official language. Though some Paraguayans still consider Guaraní a vulgar medium, many have embraced it as a patriotic touchstone. (The Paraguayan monetary unit is also called the guaraní.) Increasingly, Guaraní scholars are refuting old canards about its supposed inadequacy for 21st century communication, and are calling for academic supervision to halt the entry of Spanish words and bad neologisms into the language. Others propose that Mby'a be accepted as the scholarly standard (Guaraní has heretofore had none), that Yopará become the language of national life, and that Castellano (Spanish) be taught chiefly as a means of enabling Paraguayans to communicate with foreigners, rather than as a national medium. A Congreso Nacional de Lengua y Cultura Guaraní has been founded to oversee these and other issues, such as developing media and academic models.
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/world_languages/67586
Indian Languages and effects on radio broadcasting
LANGUAGE AND RADIO IN PERU AND BOLIVIA
To put the Guatemalan sociolinguistic situation and its manifestation in radio broadcasting in perspective, I feel it is useful to briefly examine Peru and Bolivia, two other Latin American countries with large Indian populations. Peru has about three-and-a-half million Quechua speakers out of a total population of seventeen million. In addition there are about half-a-million Aymara speakers. Although their numbers are small, compared to the total population, the Indians are concentrated in five southern mountain departments, where they make up as much as ninety percent of the population. Over half of Bolivia's 5.2 million population are Indians, about equally divided between Quechuas and Aymaras. As in Guatemala, the Indians of Peru and Bolivia were subdued by the Spanish and then relegated to the roles of peasants at the bottom end of society.
However, there is a major difference between Guatemala, on the one hand, and Peru and Bolivia on the other hand. Both of the latter countries have had governments which have taken a positive approach to bilingual education and language planning. The Indians and peasants of Bolivia began receiving a more active role in the government since that country's 1952 revolution. In Peru, serious attention was given to the peasants after a leftwing military coup in 1969. Although other governments have come and gone in the interim in both cases, what was started could not be stopped.
Bilingual education has been at the forefront of both countries' policies. In recent years "there has been a tradition of positive government policy towards bilingual education programmes in Andean Latin America" (Minaya-Rowe,1986, 468), and moreover, the aim of these programs "as officially stated, is not to produce a nation of monolingual Spanish speakers, but rather one of bilingual Spanish-Quechua speakers" (Minaya- Rowe, 1986, 475). Bolivia's education system uses "a bilingual approach which will educate its adult population, allowing them to retain their own
languages and cultures, while at the same time providing the opportunity to learn Spanish (Stark, 1985, p541). Peru designed its bilingual education program "to draw the indigenous groups into the Peruvian mainstream efficiently and with respect shown to their language and culture" (Hornberger, 1987, 206).
Both countries have even gone a step further. IN 1975, QUECHUA WAS MADE AN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF PERU (ESCOBAR 1981, HORNBERGER 1987), WHICH EVEN INCLUDED THE TEACHING OF QUECHUA TO SPANISH SPEAKERS. SIMILARLY, BOTH QUECHUA AND AYMARA WERE MADE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES, COEQUAL TO SPANISH, IN BOLIVIA (MINAYA-ROWE, 1986). ONE OF THE MANIFESTATIONS OF GIVING OFFICIAL STATUS WAS "THE USE OF BOTH QUECHUA OR AYMARA AND SPANISH ON (THE) RADIO" (MINAYA-ROWE, 1986).There are, in fact, some great differances between these countries and Guatemala in regards to the use of Indian languages in radio broadcasting.
Both countries, like Guatemala, have Catholic and Protestant stations that use Indian languages (Ballon, 1987; Fontenelle, 1985; Gavilan, 1983; Moore, 1985; Oros, 1987; Perry, 1982; Povrzenic, 1987b, 1987c). But what about privately owned commercial stations? In the Andean highlands of southern and central Peru, there are at least several commercial stations known to broadcast in Quechua and/or Aymara, in addition to Spanish (Hirahara & Inoue, 1984a, 1984b; Llorens and Tamayo, 1987; Povrzenic, 1987a, 1987b). These include at least one member of the Cadena de Emisoras Cruz, one of Peru's largest radio networks (Hirahara & Inoue, 1984a). In addition, Peru's most powerful commercial radio broadcaster, Radio Union in Lima, has an hour long program in Quechua every morning (Hirahara, 1981; Montoya, 1987). Likewise, in Bolivia commercial broadcasters are known to broadcast in indigenous languages (Gwyn, 1983; La Defensa, 1986; Povrzenic, 1983).
What is most significant, though, is that in both cases the official government stations have added Indian language broadcasts. Peru's Radio Nacional broadcasts in both Quechua and Aymara (Povrzenic, 1987a), as does Bolivia's Radio Illimani (Moore, 1985). IN FACT, THE PERUVIAN GOVERNMENT WENT A STEP FURTHER IN 1988 WHEN THEY RENAMED RADIO NACIONAL WITH THE QUECHUA NAME RADIO PACHICUTEC (KLEMETZ, 1989).
In summary, the sociolinguistic situation in Peru and Bolivia is markedly different from that in Guatemala, although all three share Spanish as a dominant language over various native languages. The difference, though is that in Peru and Bolivia, efforts have been made not only to preserve, but to give status to the native languages. Furthermore, the status of native languages in the two countries is reflected in their use by all levels of radio broadcasting in each country; private, religious, and governmental.
http://aymara.org/listarchives/archivo2001/msg00322.html
Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay live in a particular situation. Au Pérou , 47 % des Péruviens parlent l'espagnol alors que le reste de la population utilise l'une des 85 langues «indiennes» (dont l'aymara et le quechua). L'espagnol est minoritaire également en Bolivie (43 %) et au Paraguay (3 %). On compte une bonne quarantaine de langues «indiennes» en Bolivie (dont l'aymara et le quechua).
Enfin, dans deux pays, le Paraguay en Amérique du Sud et la Guinée équatoriale en Afrique, la quasi-totalité de la population emploie une autre langue que l'espagnol comme langue maternelle. Cette situation ressemble à celle de plusieurs États francophones ou anglophones d'Afrique: une infime minorité utilise la langue officielle comme langue maternelle. Au Paraguay, près de 97 % de la population parle le guarani. Selon le paragraphe 2 de l'article 140 de la Constitution paraguayenne (1992): «Ses langues officielles sont le castillan et le guarani.»
Quant à la Guinée équatoriale , coincée par le Cameroun et le Gabon (deux États de langue française), l'espagnol y demeure la langue officielle (avec le français), mais 75 % de la population parlent le fang et 25 % se partagent les sept autres langues de ce petit État de 410 000 habitants. Durant l'année 1998, le Parlement a adopté la Loi constitutionnelle portant modification de l'article 4 de la Loi fondamentale et établissant que «les langues officielles de la république de Guinée équatoriale sont l'espagnol et le français». Dans les faits, l'espagnol est la première langue officielle, le français, la seconde.
Countries where Spanish is a minority
Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay live in a particular situation. In Peru, 47% of Peruvians speak Spanish while the rest of the population uses one of 85 languages "Indian" (including the Aymara and Quechua). Spanish is also a minority in Bolivia (43%) and Paraguay (3%). Spanish is also a minority in Bolivia (43%) and Paraguay (3%). There are a good forty languages "Indian" in Bolivia (with Aymara and Quechua).
Finally, in two countries, Paraguay in South America and Equatorial Guinea in Africa, almost all of the population uses a language other than Spanish as their mother tongue. This situation resembles that of several states of Francophone and Anglophone Africa: a small minority use the official language as mother tongue. In Paraguay, about 97% of the population speaks Guarani. According to paragraph 2 of Article 140 of the Constitution of Paraguay (1992): "Its official languages are Castilian and Guarani."
As for Equatorial Guinea, squeezed between Cameroon and Gabon (two French-speaking states), including the Spanish remains the official language (with French), but 75% of the population speaks the blood and 25% share seven other languages of this small country of 410 000 inhabitants. During 1998, Parliament adopted the Constitutional Act Amending Article 4 of the Basic Law and stating that "the official languages of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea are Spanish and French. In fact, Spanish is the first official language, French, second.
http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/Langues/2vital_inter_espagnol.htm
Paraguaigua noñe'êkuaáiva guarani pytaguarôguáicha hetâme
May 1, 2001
"A Paraguayan who can't speak Guaraní," opines this proverb, "is like a foreigner in his own land." In fact, between 90% and 95% of Paraguay's 5 million inhabitants speak Guaraní (pronounced "wa-ra-NEE," with a guttural rasp on the "wa"). That makes this indigenous language not just Paraguay's dominant language (by comparison, only 75% of Paraguayans speak Spanish), but also the only First Nations language on the planet to enjoy majority-language status, as well as the only one spoken on a large scale by non-aboriginals. (About half of Guaraní speakers are of European descent.) Finally, Guaraní earns Paraguay membership in that most restricted of clubs, the Officially Bilingual Nations of the Americas, a distinction it shares only with Canada and Haïti.
Victory in conquest
At contact, Guaraní cultures dominated northern Argentina, eastern Bolivia, and southern Brazil and Paraguay. In fact, after Arawakan, Guaraní may have been the most geographically widespread language in Latin America. But unlike every other native people in the Americas, the Guaraní managed to remain influential in Paraguay even after Spanish conquest. So influential were they in fact that the newcomers found they had to learn the local language to get by. Modern Paraguayans call Guaraní ñe'engatú ("dear speech"), or abá ñe'é ("common man's speech"). Traditionally relegated to a vernacular role in Paraguayan society, until recently Guaraní was not taught in schools or used in formal contexts in spite of its superior demographics. Today, thanks to a growing Paraguayan identity movement, it is poised to assume more substantial responsibilities in Paraguay and in the world.
The term "Guaraní" actually refers to a group of dialects of the Andean-Equatorial language family. (In addition to Guaraní, Andean-Equatorial languages include Quechua, Aymara, and Tupi, indigenous tongues that remain influential across most of modern South America.) Paraguay encloses several Guaraní dialects, among which two dominate. Mby'a is the dialect of rural aboriginals; most European and mixed-race Paraguayans speak Yopará. Although Yopará has absorbed many Spanish influences, it remains squarely Guaraní and is mostly intelligible to Mby'a speakers. And although Yopará accounts for most Guaraní communication on the national level, Mby'a is considered the "pure" tradition, insofar as it remains largely unadulterated by hispanicisms.
Though more Paraguayans speak Guaraní than Spanish, and songs and popular literature have been composed in it since colonial times, Guaraní had no official status in Paraguay until the 1992 Constitution recognised it as an official language. Though some Paraguayans still consider Guaraní a vulgar medium, many have embraced it as a patriotic touchstone. (The Paraguayan monetary unit is also called the guaraní.) Increasingly, Guaraní scholars are refuting old canards about its supposed inadequacy for 21st century communication, and are calling for academic supervision to halt the entry of Spanish words and bad neologisms into the language. Others propose that Mby'a be accepted as the scholarly standard (Guaraní has heretofore had none), that Yopará become the language of national life, and that Castellano (Spanish) be taught chiefly as a means of enabling Paraguayans to communicate with foreigners, rather than as a national medium. A Congreso Nacional de Lengua y Cultura Guaraní has been founded to oversee these and other issues, such as developing media and academic models.
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/world_languages/67586
Indian Languages and effects on radio broadcasting
LANGUAGE AND RADIO IN PERU AND BOLIVIA
To put the Guatemalan sociolinguistic situation and its manifestation in radio broadcasting in perspective, I feel it is useful to briefly examine Peru and Bolivia, two other Latin American countries with large Indian populations. Peru has about three-and-a-half million Quechua speakers out of a total population of seventeen million. In addition there are about half-a-million Aymara speakers. Although their numbers are small, compared to the total population, the Indians are concentrated in five southern mountain departments, where they make up as much as ninety percent of the population. Over half of Bolivia's 5.2 million population are Indians, about equally divided between Quechuas and Aymaras. As in Guatemala, the Indians of Peru and Bolivia were subdued by the Spanish and then relegated to the roles of peasants at the bottom end of society.
However, there is a major difference between Guatemala, on the one hand, and Peru and Bolivia on the other hand. Both of the latter countries have had governments which have taken a positive approach to bilingual education and language planning. The Indians and peasants of Bolivia began receiving a more active role in the government since that country's 1952 revolution. In Peru, serious attention was given to the peasants after a leftwing military coup in 1969. Although other governments have come and gone in the interim in both cases, what was started could not be stopped.
Bilingual education has been at the forefront of both countries' policies. In recent years "there has been a tradition of positive government policy towards bilingual education programmes in Andean Latin America" (Minaya-Rowe,1986, 468), and moreover, the aim of these programs "as officially stated, is not to produce a nation of monolingual Spanish speakers, but rather one of bilingual Spanish-Quechua speakers" (Minaya- Rowe, 1986, 475). Bolivia's education system uses "a bilingual approach which will educate its adult population, allowing them to retain their own
languages and cultures, while at the same time providing the opportunity to learn Spanish (Stark, 1985, p541). Peru designed its bilingual education program "to draw the indigenous groups into the Peruvian mainstream efficiently and with respect shown to their language and culture" (Hornberger, 1987, 206).
Both countries have even gone a step further. IN 1975, QUECHUA WAS MADE AN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF PERU (ESCOBAR 1981, HORNBERGER 1987), WHICH EVEN INCLUDED THE TEACHING OF QUECHUA TO SPANISH SPEAKERS. SIMILARLY, BOTH QUECHUA AND AYMARA WERE MADE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES, COEQUAL TO SPANISH, IN BOLIVIA (MINAYA-ROWE, 1986). ONE OF THE MANIFESTATIONS OF GIVING OFFICIAL STATUS WAS "THE USE OF BOTH QUECHUA OR AYMARA AND SPANISH ON (THE) RADIO" (MINAYA-ROWE, 1986).There are, in fact, some great differances between these countries and Guatemala in regards to the use of Indian languages in radio broadcasting.
Both countries, like Guatemala, have Catholic and Protestant stations that use Indian languages (Ballon, 1987; Fontenelle, 1985; Gavilan, 1983; Moore, 1985; Oros, 1987; Perry, 1982; Povrzenic, 1987b, 1987c). But what about privately owned commercial stations? In the Andean highlands of southern and central Peru, there are at least several commercial stations known to broadcast in Quechua and/or Aymara, in addition to Spanish (Hirahara & Inoue, 1984a, 1984b; Llorens and Tamayo, 1987; Povrzenic, 1987a, 1987b). These include at least one member of the Cadena de Emisoras Cruz, one of Peru's largest radio networks (Hirahara & Inoue, 1984a). In addition, Peru's most powerful commercial radio broadcaster, Radio Union in Lima, has an hour long program in Quechua every morning (Hirahara, 1981; Montoya, 1987). Likewise, in Bolivia commercial broadcasters are known to broadcast in indigenous languages (Gwyn, 1983; La Defensa, 1986; Povrzenic, 1983).
What is most significant, though, is that in both cases the official government stations have added Indian language broadcasts. Peru's Radio Nacional broadcasts in both Quechua and Aymara (Povrzenic, 1987a), as does Bolivia's Radio Illimani (Moore, 1985). IN FACT, THE PERUVIAN GOVERNMENT WENT A STEP FURTHER IN 1988 WHEN THEY RENAMED RADIO NACIONAL WITH THE QUECHUA NAME RADIO PACHICUTEC (KLEMETZ, 1989).
In summary, the sociolinguistic situation in Peru and Bolivia is markedly different from that in Guatemala, although all three share Spanish as a dominant language over various native languages. The difference, though is that in Peru and Bolivia, efforts have been made not only to preserve, but to give status to the native languages. Furthermore, the status of native languages in the two countries is reflected in their use by all levels of radio broadcasting in each country; private, religious, and governmental.
http://aymara.org/listarchives/archivo2001/msg00322.html